Table 3 Factors identified from quasi-experimental studies
Factor | Outcome measured | Study | Intervention and method | Sample size | Study quality score (%) | Result summary |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demographic factors | ||||||
Gender | Swimming skills | Olaisen et al. (2018) | Intervention: Eight-week intervention involving a maximum of 20 age-specific swimming lessons per participant. Program targeted children with Latino ethnicity and low-income background. Program curriculum included water safety knowledge, floatation, and swimming endurance Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills compared with demographic data (collected from parent-completed surveys) and program attendance data | 149 | 73 | No significant differences in the acquisition of swimming skills based on gender were found from pre- to post-program |
Both swimming skills and water safety knowledge | Petrass et al. (2021) | Intervention: Survival swimming program delivered in regional and metropolitan schools consisting of ten one-hour sessions. Program curriculum included water safety knowledge (local aquatic environments and hazards, survival skills) and swimming skills (floatation, gliding, entry/exits, survival strokes, and rescues) Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of water safety knowledge (from child-completed survey) and swimming skills (through observations) compared with demographic data (from child-completed survey) | 204 | 73 | No significant differences in the acquisition of water safety knowledge or swimming skills based on gender were found from pre- to post-program | |
Age | Swimming skills | Olaisen et al. (2018) | Intervention: Eight-week intervention involving a maximum of 20 age-specific swimming lessons per participant. Program targeted children with Latino ethnicity and low-income background. Program curriculum included water safety knowledge, floatation, and swimming endurance Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills compared with demographic data (collected from parent-completed surveys) and program attendance data | 149 | 73 | Older children acquired a higher number of swimming skills than younger children from pre- to post-program |
Water safety knowledge | Calverley et al. (2021) | Intervention: The Bush Nippers program is a ten-day program (sessions lasting one-hour) for children who live in regional or remote areas. Program curriculum includes water safety education (regarding signage recognition, and safe aquatic behaviours) and swimming skills (floating, entry/exit, rescues, survival swimming, and first aid; aligned with the Victorian Water Safety Certificate) Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills (measured practically) and water safety knowledge (measured through a survey) compared with demographic data (age, gender, aquatic experience) collected through a survey | 105 | 73 | Younger children (8–9 years) acquired water safety knowledge from pre- to post-program. whereas older children (12 years) did not | |
Terzidis et al. (2007) | Intervention: School-based educational package including an audiovisual presentation and take-home resources about water safety Method: Age-specific child-completed questionnaires at pre- and one-month post-program questionnaire measured water safety knowledge and attitudes, and demographic data | 1,400 | 70 | Younger children (in kindergarten) acquired water safety knowledge from pre- to post-program, whereas older children (in elementary and high school) did not | ||
Lawson et al. (2012) | Intervention: The Danger Rangers Water Safety Program is an age-specific water safety program delivered during summer holiday camps. Program curriculum includes learning about water safety rules, the role of the lifeguard, water safety devices, and floating versus sinking. The program was delivered to children of three age-groups: kindergarten, first and second grade, and third grade Method: Water safety knowledge was assessed at pre- and post-program, and at three-week post-program to measure retention, compared with demographic data from parent-completed enrollment form | 166 | 63 | Children of each age group acquired water safety knowledge from pre- to post-program, whereas only older children (in third grade) demonstrated retention of knowledge at three-weeks post-program | ||
Combined aquatic competence | Munn et al. (2021) | Intervention: The iCan Swim program is a five-day program (sessions lasting 45–60 min depending on age) tailored for children with developmental disabilities. The program curriculum includes safe entry/exit, breath control, strokes, floating/gliding, and rolling Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills compared with medical diagnosis of child reported by parents on program enrollment forms | 86 | 77 | No significant differences in acquisition of aquatic competence based on age were found from pre- to post-program | |
Geographic residence | Both swimming skills and water safety knowledge | Petrass et al. (2021) | Intervention: Survival swimming program delivered in regional and metropolitan schools consisting of ten one-hour sessions. Program curriculum included water safety knowledge (local aquatic environments and hazards, survival skills) and swimming skills (floatation, gliding, entry/exits, survival strokes, and rescues) Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of water safety knowledge (from child-completed survey) and swimming skills (through observations) compared with demographic data (from child-completed survey) | 204 | 73 | Children from metropolitan areas acquired both water safety knowledge and swimming skills from pre- to post-program. Children from regional areas acquired swimming skills from pre- to post-program but did not acquire water safety knowledge |
Disability/ medical condition | Swimming skills | Munn et al. (2021) | Intervention: The iCan Swim program is a five-day program (sessions lasting 45–60 min depending on age) tailored for children with developmental disabilities. The program curriculum includes safe entry/exit, breath control, strokes, floating/gliding, and rolling Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills compared with medical diagnosis of child reported by parents on program enrollment forms | 86 | 77 | Children with ASD and ADHD acquired a higher number of swimming skills from pre- to post-program than children with only ASD |
Combined aquatic competence | Forde et al. (2020) | Intervention: The SWIM Central program is a ten-day program (sessions lasting 30 min). Program curriculum includes water safety knowledge (Never Swim Alone/Call for Help/Reach, Throw, Don’t Go!) and swimming skills (safe entry, safe exit, jump in and kick to wall, freestyle arm stroke, and floating on back) Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of water safety knowledge and swimming skills, compared with demographic data (child’s age, ethnicity, diagnosis) from parent-completed enrollment form | 76 | 63 | Children with disabilities showed significant increases in one skill (floating on back) from pre- to post-program. Children without disabilities showed significant increases in six skills from pre- to post-program | |
Background factors—Aquatic experience | ||||||
Frequency of participation in aquatic activity | Swimming skills | Olaisen et al. (2018) | Intervention: Eight-week intervention involving a maximum of 20 age-specific swimming lessons per participant. Program targeted children with Latino ethnicity and low-income background. Program curriculum included water safety knowledge, floatation, and swimming endurance Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills compared with demographic data (collected from parent-completed surveys) and program attendance data | 149 | 73 | Children who swam frequently (attended ≥ 10 lessons) acquired a higher number of swimming skills than children who swam less frequently (attended ≤ 7 lessons) from pre- to post-program |
Water safety knowledge | Calverley et al. (2021) | Intervention: The Bush Nippers program is a ten-day program (sessions lasting one-hour) for children who live in regional or remote areas. Program curriculum includes water safety education (regarding signage recognition, and safe aquatic behaviours) and swimming skills (floating, entry/exit, rescues, survival swimming, and first aid; aligned with the Victorian Water Safety Certificate) Method: Pre- and post-program assessment of swimming skills (measured practically) and water safety knowledge (measured through a survey) compared with demographic data (age, gender, aquatic experience) collected through a survey | 105 | 73 | Children who swam frequently (at least twice a month) acquired greater water safety knowledge than children who swam less frequently (less than twice a month) from pre- to post-program | |