Table 3 Summary characteristics of the included studies

Udeabor et al. (2012)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (303)

Third decade—20–29 (–)Mean age = 28.8

Frontal (11.96) Lips (6.7)

Middle third (24.9) and the zygomatic complex was = 9.74%

Mandible (10.23)

N/A

Only 6.9% of the victims in vehicular crashes wore the seat belt. Only 1.7% of those involved in motorcycle crashes wore head helmets. GCS ≤8 to 15. Complications include malocclusion and infection

Adeyemo et al. (2005)

Journal article

Retrospective (519)

20–39 (58.8)

Lip (2.2), frontal (2.5) and cheek (2.0)

Mandible (52.1)

Zygomatic complex (12)

N/A

Factors such as age and sex were associated with facial fractures. The body and parasymphyseal regions appear to be the commonest sites affected in the mandible

Obimakinde et al. (2018)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (387)

21–30 (39.8)

General (91.2)

Mandible (45.3)

Maxilla (25.6)

200–240 (Direct cost for the procedure only)

Trauma to the teeth = 323 (83.5%) Loss of tooth from 62.3% of participants.12.3% and 51.5% of participants perceived that the treatment was expensive. Incidence is greater in the urban area. The prevention will serve as a form of poverty reduction as money expended by the victim in the treatment of injuries will serve to better their economic status

Tugaineyo (2011)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (50)

21–30 (58)

N/A

Mandible (N/A)

N/A

488 (Direct and Indirect cost)

Furthermore, this equals 15.2 % of the GDP per capita of the year of study. The need for policies to be directed at imposing the use of safety gadgets

Krishnan et al. (2017)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (422)

26–35 (–)

General (81.7)

Mandible (50.4)

N/A

N/A

Incidence= 32.7% of patients from the A&E department. Alcohol consumption is associated with facial injury. Associated injuries are majorly head injuries and long bone fractures. Complications include malocclusion, infection, and hypertrophic scar

Kuye and Olufemi (2022)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (154)

21–30 (N/A)

92.2 (70.4)

Mandible (70.4)

Nasal fracture (11.1)

N/A

The use of alcohol use before injury was reported in about half (49.4%) of the population. Associated injury= head injury. ISS ≥ 16 (37.5% of the patients). Time of injury= Night. The mortality rate of 11.7%. GCS= 3-15. Complications = Infection and malocclusion

Bernard et al. (2012)

Dissertation

Retrospective (534)

20–29 (38.2)

N/A

Mandibular fracture (56.1), with the body recording the highest occurrence (28.2%)

Maxillary (14.2)

N/A

The highest incidence occurs on Saturdays and Sundays. One-third of the patients were on alcohol/substance use before sustaining of injury. Incidence was more in the urban area, at night. Associated injury =traumatic brain injury, Complication: malocclusion, infection, and Malunion

Moncrieff et al. (2004)

Journal article

Retrospective (100)

Mean 38.8

N/A

Mandible-Body (43)

Mandible-Parasymphysis (34)

468.61 (investigation, med.& hospitalize)

All patients from the low-income class paid out of pocket. Sixty-two per cent of the high-income class received the open reduction inter-maxillary fixation (ORIF) a more expensive procedure than the close reduction inter-maxillary fixation (IMF)

Majambo et al. (2013)

Journal article

Prospective cross-sectional (132)

21–30 (51.51%)

N/A

Mandible (68.94)

Midface (20.45) and maxilla were 30.1% of the midface

N/A

Associated injury: long bone (femoral) fracture =45.45% and skull = 18.18%. Head injury (Loss of consciousness) in 35.6%. Post-op complications= Infection (48.7%) and malocclusion (18%)

Nwashindi et al. (2015)

Dissertation

Cross-sectional (137)

21–30 (43)

Laceration (26.9)

Mandibular (45.2)

Midfacial (28)

N/A

Maxillofacial injuries are of higher occurrence in patients with low education levels, low social economic class, and urban residents. Complication: infection and malocclusion

Obimakinde et al. (2017)

Journal article

Retrospective (387)

18–27 (47.5)

N/A

Frontal (23)

Maxilla and Zygoma (8)

N/A

The study further emphasizes the need to enforce the use of protective gears

Mogajane and Mabongo (2018)

Journal article

Cohort (140)

26–35 (64.3)

N/A

Mandible (48)

Zygomatic bone And complex (28.1)

N/A

The classification of the causes of road accidents in Nigeria into human, mechanical, and environmental factors. The peak period of road crashes in June, the rainy season resulting in poor visibility and road wetness. Likewise, it is the “ember” period that is characterized by festivities with increased activities.

Ferreira Lima de Moura et al. (2016)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (182)

23–30 (53.8)

Lip (38.7)

Dentoalveolar Fracture (59.3)

Mandible (19.8)

N/A

Prevalence = 16% among patients that visited the clinic, particular attention to motorcycle accidents

Agbor et al. (2014)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (194)

20–39 (75)

N/A

Mandible (73)

Middle third (19) Zygoma (28.1% of the middle third

N/A

Most cases happened in the evenings and at night. Policy in ensuring that the rule of law has no tolerance for assault/violence

Nyameino et al. (2018)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (132)

21–40 (76.5)

N/A

Symphysis (37.9)

Parasymphyseal (29.5) and alveolar process (29.5)

N/A

About one-third of the injured were under the influence of alcohol. Most of the crashes occur at night (63, 47.7%), and victims were traveling at speeds between 31–60km/hour. The severity of the injury was associated with the type of helmet worn. The use of a half-face helmet increases the risk of facial fractures.

Chalya et al. (2011)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (73)

21–30 (48)

N/A

Mandibular and the majority (91%) were bilateral

N/A

N/A

Assault victims were under the influence of alcohol. The majority are of tertiary educational status and urban dwellers. The time of injury for assault victims was at night

Moshy et al. (2020)

Journal article

Retrospective (215)

21–40 (40)

N/A

Mandible (66)

Zygoma (34) of maxillary fracture

N/A

An increase in socioeconomic activities results in an increase in human and vehicular activities and an increase in motor traffic accidents, especially in the absence of corresponding stringent civil and traffic rules and regulations

Kiprop (2019)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (91)

21–30 (41.8)

98% in total. Upper lip (30.8)

Maxilla (92.3) orbital (33)

Mandible (20.9)

N/A

Most riders had neither formal training nor a riding license. Alcohol consumption by some of the victims

Sohal et al. (2019)

Journal article

Retrospective (233)

20–30 (N/A)

N/A

Mandible (68.2), with the body being the most frequent (25%)

Maxilla (31.8), Midface, zygomatic bone most frequent (29%)

N/A

Motorcycle riders were more involved in related injuries than pillion passengers. Most treatments are out of pocket; therefore, most patients opt for MMF and wire suspension which are cheaper. Concomitant injury = Head with GCS ≤15.

Tsakiris et al. (2002)

Journal article

Retrospective (151)

20–29 (41.4)

N/A

Mandible with the body being the most frequent (25)

The midface, with zygoma being most frequent (32.5%)

N/A

Above half of the patients (54.9) suffered an altered state of unconsciousness, a larger proportion of commuters do not wear crash elements

Mpiima et al. (2018)

Journal article

Retrospective (311)

21–30 (46)

N/A

Mandible (69.1) and 32.2% of this is the parasymphyseal fracture.

Midface (45.3%), and 34.7% of this is the zygomatic bone

N/A

More than a third (43.1%) of the patients presented with associated altered levels of consciousness, with a Glasgow coma scale of less than 15. Complication: Trismus and scar

Kamulegeya et al. (2009)

Journal article

Retrospective (326)

21–30 (47.2). Mean age= 29.1

49.4%

Mandible (75)

Maxillary (20.2)

N/A

Incidence is high in rural residences and associated with the use of alcohol. Concomitant injury (Head and neck) = 31.65%

Tekin and Ali (2021)

Journal article

Retrospective (211)

20–29 (N/A)

N/A

Mandible (61)

Maxilla (21)

N/A

Complications: Threatened airway (that may result in neural deficit and death) especially when the tongue, floor of the mouth, and bilaterally facial skeletal bone are affected. The incidence was majorly at night

Kileo (2012)

Dissertation

Cross-sectional (178)

21–30 (55.1)

General. Laceration (48.3)

Mandible (Symphysis) 36.5%

Mandible (Parasymphysis) 30.5%

N/A

Complications: A significant possibility of airway obstruction when the tongue, floor of the mouth, and bilaterally facial skeletal bone are affected. More incidence at night

Santos et al. (2018)

Journal article

Retrospective (239)

18–24 (27)

Lacerations (41.9)

Mandible (53.8)

Zygomatic bone (10.3)

N/A

Prevalence = 2.89%. There is a need for more training on maxillofacial imaging by Dentists and Medical doctors on diagnostic imaging to avoid the chances of fractures being misdiagnosed

Oginni et al. (2016)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (116)

20–39 (81)

Orbit/Ocular region (61.5%)

Mandible (71.2), parasymphyseal fracture (41.9)

Midface (66.3%), Zygomatic complex (60.9%)

N/A

The majority of crashes occurred at night. Dysfunctional streetlight with no functional streetlight. Drivers and pillion affected. Associated alcohol influence

Peters (2017)

Journal article

Cohort (54)

Mean age = 30

General (9.9)

Mandible (34.6)

Zygomatic (9.9) and frontal bone (9.9)

N/A

Alcohol use at the time of injury. The majority of victims had delayed treatment that resulted in complications (Trismus)

Elm et al. (2014)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (42)

Mean age = 30.1

Laceration (37.8)

Mandible (64.4)

Nasal bone (24.4)

N/A

This call for the need to reduce violence and such traumas by improving the current socioeconomic and educational status

Stanford-Moore et al. (2022)

Dissertation

Retrospective (1203)

21–30 (41)

General (87.5). Laceration = 62.2

Mandible (56), the body of the mandible was 32.9% of the total mandibular fracture

Midface (32), Dentoalveolar made up 36.3% of the total midface fracture, followed by the zygomatic fracture of 32.5%

N/A

Associated injury =the head (60.8%) and limb (15%)

Stanslaus (2017)

Journal article

Cross-sectional (101)

20–29 (44.6)

Generalized. Abrasion (40.1)

Zygomatic complex (46)

Maxillary (28)

N/A

Incidence of 6.1%